← Praxis Core: Grammar & Usage

Praxis Core Teaching Exam Study Guide

Key concepts, definitions, and exam tips organized by topic.

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Praxis Core: Grammar & Usage — Study Guide


Overview

The Praxis Core Grammar & Usage section tests your ability to identify and correct errors in standard written English. Questions cover parts of speech, sentence structure, subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent agreement, punctuation, and commonly confused words. Mastering these rules requires not only memorization but also the ability to recognize errors in context.


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Parts of Speech


Summary

Understanding parts of speech is foundational to all other grammar rules. Each word in a sentence plays a specific grammatical role, and recognizing these roles helps you identify errors in agreement, modification, and usage.


Key Concepts


  • • Adverb — Modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb; frequently ends in -ly (e.g., quickly, very, well)
  • • Pronoun — Replaces a noun (its antecedent) and must match it in number and gender
  • • Transitive verb — Requires a direct object to complete its meaning (e.g., She kicked the ball)
  • • Intransitive verb — Does NOT take a direct object (e.g., She runs)
  • • Coordinating conjunction — Joins two independent clauses of equal rank; remembered by the acronym FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So
  • • Gerund — A verb form ending in -ing that functions as a noun in a sentence (e.g., Swimming is great exercise)

    • Key Terms

  • • Antecedent — The noun a pronoun replaces
  • • FANBOYS — Acronym for the seven coordinating conjunctions
  • • Gerund — A verb form (-ing) used as a noun
  • • Transitive / Intransitive — Distinction based on whether a verb needs a direct object

    • Watch Out For

    > ⚠️ Adverbs vs. Adjectives: Do not use an adjective where an adverb is needed. Example: "She ran quick" is wrong; "She ran quickly" is correct.

    >

    > ⚠️ Gerunds vs. Participles: Both end in -ing, but a gerund acts as a noun, while a participle acts as an adjective. Know the difference by function, not form.

    >

    > ⚠️ Some verbs are both transitive and intransitive depending on context — always check for a direct object.


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    Sentence Structure


    Summary

    A grammatically complete sentence requires a subject, a verb, and a complete thought. Errors in sentence structure include fragments, run-ons, and modifier problems, all of which the Praxis Core tests heavily.


    Key Concepts


  • • Sentence Fragment — Missing a subject, verb, or complete thought; corrected by adding the missing element or attaching it to an adjacent sentence
  • • Run-On Sentence — Two independent clauses joined without proper punctuation or conjunction

    • - Corrections: Period (two sentences) | Semicolon | Comma + coordinating conjunction

  • • Dependent (Subordinate) Clause — Begins with a subordinating conjunction (because, although, when, since); cannot stand alone
  • • Dangling Modifier — A modifying phrase with no logical word in the sentence to modify

    • - ❌ Running down the street, the rain soaked me.

    - ✅ Running down the street, I got soaked by the rain.

  • • Misplaced Modifier — A modifier that IS present but placed too far from the word it modifies
  • • Parallel Structure — Using the same grammatical form for words/phrases in a series or comparison

    • - ✅ She likes hiking, swimming, and cycling.

    - ❌ She likes hiking, swimming, and to cycle.


    Key Terms

  • • Independent clause — A complete sentence with subject + verb + complete thought
  • • Subordinate clause — A dependent clause beginning with a subordinating conjunction
  • • Subordinating conjunctions — because, although, when, since, unless, while, if, after, before
  • • Dangling modifier — Modifier with no valid referent in the sentence
  • • Parallel structure — Consistent grammatical form across a series or comparison

    • Watch Out For

    > ⚠️ Fragment Trap: Subordinating conjunctions create dependent clauses, NOT complete sentences. "Because she studied hard." is a fragment.

    >

    > ⚠️ Dangling vs. Misplaced: On the exam, both are errors, but they have different fixes. A dangling modifier requires rewriting the sentence; a misplaced modifier just needs to be moved.

    >

    > ⚠️ Parallel Structure in Lists: When listing items with and or or, all items must be in the same grammatical form (all nouns, all gerunds, all infinitives, etc.).


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    Agreement Rules


    Summary

    Agreement rules govern the relationship between subjects and verbs, and between pronouns and their antecedents. These rules become complex when sentences contain compound subjects, collective nouns, prepositional phrases, or indefinite pronouns.


    Key Concepts


    #### Subject-Verb Agreement

    | Situation | Rule | Example |

    |-----------|------|---------|

    | Or / Nor compound subject | Verb agrees with the nearest subject | Neither the teacher nor the students are ready. |

    | Indefinite pronouns (everyone, somebody, each, nobody) | Singular verb | Everyone is welcome. |

    | Collective nouns (team, jury, committee) | Singular in American English | The team is playing well. |

    | Prepositional phrase between subject and verb | Verb agrees with the true subject, NOT the object of the preposition | The box of apples is on the table. |


    #### Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

  • • Pronoun must match antecedent in number (singular/plural) and gender
  • • Singular indefinite pronouns (everyone, each, nobody) traditionally take singular pronouns
  • • Modern formal usage accepts they/their as singular gender-neutral (e.g., Everyone should bring their book.)

    • Key Terms

  • • Antecedent — The noun a pronoun refers back to
  • • Collective noun — A word naming a group (team, jury, class, committee)
  • • Indefinite pronoun — A pronoun referring to a nonspecific person or thing (everyone, each, nobody, someone, anybody)

    • Watch Out For

    > ⚠️ Prepositional Phrase Trap: The most common subject-verb error on the Praxis. Always identify the true subject by ignoring the prepositional phrase. "The list of requirements is long" — NOT "are."

    >

    > ⚠️ Or/Nor Rule: With or/nor, agree with the closer subject. "Neither the students nor the teacher is ready."

    >

    > ⚠️ Indefinite Pronouns Are Singular: Everyone, each, somebody, no one, anyone, everyone — always singular verb, even if the meaning feels plural.

    >

    > ⚠️ Collective Noun Context: If a collective noun acts as a unit → singular. If members act individually → plural (rare in American English).


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    Punctuation & Mechanics


    Summary

    Punctuation errors are heavily tested on the Praxis Core. Focus on the rules for commas, semicolons, colons, apostrophes, and how to set off clauses correctly.


    Key Concepts


    #### Comma Rules

  • • Before a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) joining two independent clauses: I wanted to go, but I was too tired.
  • • No comma if the conjunction joins only two words or phrases (not independent clauses)
  • • Nonrestrictive (nonessential) clauses → set off with commas: My brother, who lives in Texas, is visiting.
  • • Restrictive (essential) clauses → NO commas: The student who studied hardest passed.

    • #### Semicolons

  • • Join two closely related independent clauses WITHOUT a coordinating conjunction
  • • Used before conjunctive adverbs (however, therefore, moreover): She studied hard; however, she was still nervous.

    • #### Colons

  • • Placed after a complete independent clause to introduce a list, explanation, or quotation
  • • ❌ Do NOT use after a verb or preposition
  • • ✅ She needed three things: a pen, paper, and patience.

    • #### Apostrophes

    | Situation | Rule | Example |

    |-----------|------|---------|

    | Singular noun | Add 's | the dog's collar |

    | Plural noun ending in -s | Add ' only | the dogs' collars |

    | Plural noun NOT ending in -s | Add 's | the children's toys |

    | Contraction | Replace omitted letter(s) | it's = it is |

    | Possessive pronouns | NO apostrophe | its, yours, hers, theirs |


    Key Terms

  • • Independent clause — A complete sentence that can stand alone
  • • Nonrestrictive clause — Extra (nonessential) information; set off by commas
  • • Restrictive clause — Essential to meaning; no commas
  • • Conjunctive adverb — A transition word like however, therefore, meanwhile (requires semicolon before it between clauses)

    • Watch Out For

    > ⚠️ Comma Splice: Using only a comma to join two independent clauses is WRONG. "I studied, I passed" → needs a semicolon, period, or conjunction.

    >

    > ⚠️ Its vs. It's: Its = possessive (no apostrophe). It's = it is. This is one of the most frequently tested distinctions.

    >

    > ⚠️ Colon After Complete Clause Only: Never write "She bought: apples, bread, and milk." The colon cannot follow a verb directly.

    >

    > ⚠️ Nonrestrictive vs. Restrictive: Ask yourself: Would removing this clause change who or what I'm talking about? If YES → restrictive, no commas. If NO → nonrestrictive, add commas.


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    Common Usage Errors


    Summary

    The Praxis Core tests commonly confused words and pronoun case errors. These require memorization of distinctions and practice applying them in context.


    Key Concepts


    #### Commonly Confused Words


    | Confusion | Rule | Example |

    |-----------|------|---------|

    | Affect / Effect | Affect = verb (to influence); Effect = noun (result) | The rain affected my mood. The effect was significant. |

    | Fewer / Less | Fewer = countable nouns; Less = uncountable/mass nouns | Fewer apples; less water |

    | Lie / Lay | Lie = to recline (no direct object); Lay = to place (needs object) | I lie down. I lay the book down. |

    | Its / It's | Its = possessive; It's = it is/it has | The cat licked its paw. It's raining. |

    | Who / Whom | Who = subject; Whom = object | Who called? To whom did you speak? |


    #### Pronoun Case Errors

  • • Subject pronouns: I, he, she, they, we, who
  • • Object pronouns: me, him, her, them, us, whom
  • • Prepositions ALWAYS take object pronouns

    • - ❌ Between you and I → ✅ Between you and me


    #### Who vs. Whom — Quick Test

    > Substitute he/she → use who | Substitute him/her → use whom

    > To (who/whom) did you speak? → You spoke to him → whom


    #### Lie vs. Lay — Principal Parts


    | Verb | Present | Past | Past Participle |

    |------|---------|------|-----------------|

    | Lie (recline) | lie | lay | lain |

    | Lay (place) | lay | laid | laid |


    > ⚠️ Note: The past tense of lie is lay — the most common source of confusion!


    Key Terms

  • • Pronoun case — The form a pronoun takes based on its function (subject vs. object)
  • • Object of a preposition — Requires an object-case pronoun (me, him, her, them, us, whom)
  • • Dangling participle — A participial phrase with no logical subject in the sentence

    • Watch Out For

    > ⚠️ "Between you and I" is ALWAYS wrong. Prepositions take object pronouns. Always say "between you and me."

    >

    > ⚠️ Lie/Lay Past Tense Trap: "Yesterday, I lay down" is CORRECT (past tense of lie). "I laid the book down" is CORRECT (past tense of lay).

    >

    > ⚠️ Effect as a Verb: Effect can occasionally be a verb meaning "to bring about" (e.g., to effect change). This is rare but may appear on the exam.

    >

    > ⚠️ Dangling Participle: Always ask — who or what is performing the action of the introductory phrase? That subject must immediately follow the comma.


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    Quick Review Checklist


    Use this checklist to confirm your mastery before test day:


  • • [ ] I can identify all parts of speech and explain how gerunds, participles, and infinitives differ
  • • [ ] I know the FANBOYS coordinating conjunctions and when to use a comma before them
  • • [ ] I can identify and correct sentence fragments and run-on sentences
  • • [ ] I can distinguish a dangling modifier from a misplaced modifier and correct both
  • • [ ] I can apply parallel structure consistently across a series or comparison
  • • [ ] I know subject-verb agreement rules for or/nor, indefinite pronouns, collective nouns, and prepositional phrases
  • • [ ] I can correctly apply pronoun-antecedent agreement, including with indefinite pronouns
  • • [ ] I know when to use a comma, semicolon, colon, and apostrophe
  • • [ ] I can distinguish nonrestrictive vs. restrictive clauses and punctuate each correctly
  • • [ ] I know the difference between affect/effect, fewer/less, lie/lay, its/it's, and who/whom
  • • [ ] I never use a subject pronoun as the object of a preposition ("between you and me," not "I")
  • • [ ] I can apply the he/she → who and him/her → whom substitution test reliably

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    Focus your review on agreement rules and modifier errors — these are among the most heavily tested concepts on the Praxis Core Writing exam.

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